His main works deal mainly with the life and works of the literature, as well as the history of Russian journalism. They are thoroughly documented. Cit.: Nekrasov in the circle of contemporaries, L., 1938; life and work of Nekrasov, v. 1 – 3, LA, 1947-52, "Contemporary" 40-50-ies. Belinsky to Chernyshevskogo, L., 1934, "Contemporary" in Chernyshevsky and Dobroliubov, L., 1936; recent years, "Contemporary". 1863-1866, Leningrad, 1939. Lit.: Maslov, VS, VE Evgenyev-Maksimov (1883-1955), (Leningrad), 1968.

The author of the book.: Hero takes a decision. Movement of drama from 50-ies. M., "Sov. Writer, 1987; Dramaturgy of Russian Symbolism. M., "The Scythians, 1991.

A member of the joint venture in Russia (1992). Based on materials from the questionnaire.

In the 16 years he compiled and issued a "Guide to the shooting plans," (Wiley, 1832). The Restaurant Milutin entered gunner in the Guard. artillery, and in 1833 was made an officer. In 1839 he graduated from the course at the military academy.

During this time he papisal number of articles on the military and mathematics departments in "Entsikl. Lexicon Plyushara (vols. 10 – 15) and" War entsikl. Lexicon Zeddelera (vols. 2 – 8), translated from French. note SenSira ("Military. Byblos." Glazunov, 1838) and bake. article "Suvorov as general (" Patriotic. Zap. "1839, 4).

From 1839 to 1844. He served in the Caucasus, took part in many cases against the Highlanders and was wounded by a bullet to fly to the right shoulder, with damage bone. In 1845 he was appointed professor. Military Aqd. the department of military geography, he is credited with the introduction of the academic course of military statistics.

Even as he was in the Caucasus and in 1843 to bake. 'Instructions to employment, defense and attack, forests, buildings, villages and other local items ", followed by a" Critical study of the value of military geography and statistics "(1846)," The first experiments of military statistics, "(t. I -" Introduction "and" The grounds of political and military alliance of Germanic ", 1847, v. II -" Military Statistics of the Prussian Kingdom, 1848), "Description of hostilities in 1839 in the North. Dagestan" (St. Petersburg, 1850) and, finally, in 1852 – 1853. main scientific work of his – a classic study of the Italian campaign Suvorov.

On this topic as a war historian AI Mikhaylovsky, but he died, having only to start the study, by order of His Majesty continued the work was entrusted Miliutin. "The history of the war in 1799 between Russia and France in the reign of Emperor. Paul I", to recall Granovsky, "is one of those books that are necessary to every educated Russian, and will, no doubt, a highly respected place in the European historical literature; a "work in the full sense of the word independent and original" narrative of the events in it "differs extraordinary clarity and calm eyes, neotumanennogo no prejudices, and the noble simplicity, which is the identity of any significant historical works."

A few years this work has already demanded a new edition (St. Petersburg, 1857); Academy of Sciences awarded him the full Demidov Prize and elected Milyutina its corresponding member.

Translated into German: Chr. Schinitt'a came in Munich in 1857 with 1848 AM, in addition to scientific studies, was roving in the Minister of War. In 1856, at the request of the book. Baryatinsky, he was appointed Chief of Staff of the Caucasian army, in 1859, he participated in a lesson, Tando village and in the capture of a fortified aul Gunib, where he was captured Shamil.

In 1859 he was promoted to Adjutant gener. HIH, and in 1860 was appointed deputy Minister of War the following year he was appointed minister of war and retained it for twenty years, performing from the very beginning of its administration resolute, staunch and steadfast supporter of the renewal of Russia in the spirit of those principles of justice and equality, which depicted the liberation reform counts. Alexander II.

One of the closest people in the circle that gathered around behaved. book. Elena Pavlovna, Milutin, even in the post maintained close relationships with a wide erudite literary circles and maintained close contact with such persons as Kavelin, EO Korsch et al

This close contact Milyutina with outstanding representatives of society, familiarity with the movements in public life was a very important condition in its ministerial activities. For the Ministry at that time were very difficult: it was necessary to reorganize the entire device and control the army, all parties to the military life, long been largely lags behind the requirements of life.

In anticipation of fundamental reform of the dire for the people conscription, Milutin obtain for Supreme Order of reducing the period of military service from 25 years to 16 and other relief.At the same time it has taken several measures to improve the welfare of soldiers – their food, housing, clothing, started training soldiers to read, forbidden to assault and limited use of the birch to the soldiers.

In the State Council Milutin has always belonged to the most enlightened advocates of the reform movement in 1960-ies. Most notably the influence of Milyutina in the publication of the law on April 17. In 1863 to abolish the cruel criminal punishments – strokes of the rod, whip, birch, branding, chaining to the cart, etc.

In the land reform of Milutin stood for providing zemstvo perhaps more rights and greater autonomy is possible, he objected to the introduction of elected councilors began the social-estate, against the dominance of aristocratic element, insisted on the provision by the Zemsky assemblies, district and provincial, to elect their chairmen, etc.

In reviewing the legal statutes Milutin fully behind strict enforcement of the foundations of rational justice. Once open vowels were new trials, he found it necessary to develop and for new military department of Military Justice regulations (15 May 1867), it is consistent with the basic principles of legal statutes (ustnost, publicity, race start).

Press Law in 1865 met in Milutin strict criticism, he found inconvenient simultaneous existence of publications, subject to prior censorship, and publications of her release, rebelled against the concentration of power of the press, through the Minister of Internal Affairs and wanted a solution for printing to entrust the establishment of a collegial and completely independent. Milutin most important measure was the introduction of universal conscription.

Educated in the privileges of the upper classes of society is very unsympathetic attitude to the reform of the merchants even offered, if released from their duties at their own expense include persons with disabilities. Back in 1870, founded, however, was a special commission to develop a question, and January 1, 1874 took Imperial decree on the introduction of universal conscription.

Rescript of Emperor Alexander II addressed Milyutina from January 11, 1874 instructed the Minister give the law enforced in the same spirit in which it is made. This fact distinguishes the fate of military reform of the peasant. What particularly characterizes the military regulations in 1874 – is striving to spread enlightenment. Milutin was generous in providing benefits to education that grow according to its degree and reaches 3 months of active service.

Implacable enemy Milutin in this regard was the Minister of bunks. Education Earl DA Tolstoi, proposed to restrict the highest privilege a year and to equalize the rate of university graduates with graduates of the course 6 classes Classical. gymnasiums. Thanks, however, the energetic and skillful Protection Milutin, the project has passed its entirely in the State Council, failed to gr. Tolstoy introduce conscription and dedicated to the travel time university course. Particularly for the spread of education among the troops Milyutin was also made a lot.

In addition to publishing books and magazines for the soldiers' reading, measures were taken to the development of the education of soldiers. In addition to teaching teams, which was in 1873 set 3-year course was instituted regimental school, in 1875, issued general guidelines for training, etc.

Changes were both secondary and higher military schools, and Milutin wan
ted to release them from premature specialization, expanding their program in the spirit of general education, forcing the old teaching methods, replacing the Cadet Corps military school.

In 1864 they were established cadet schools. The number of military educational institutions in general was increased, a higher level of scientific claims in the production of an officer. Nicholas Academy of the General Staff has received new rules, when it was arranged an additional course.

Based Milyutin in 1866, the Legal. the officer class in 1867 was renamed the Military Academy of Law. All these measures have led to dramatically raise the intellectual level of Russian officers, highly developed military involvement in the development of Russian science – it Milyutin. It is Russian society must base of women's medical courses, which in the war 1877 – 1878 years. justified the hopes placed in them, the institution was closed shortly after leaving Milyutina from the ministry.It is extremely important and a number of measures to restructure the hospital and the health of the troops, commented favorably on the health of troops.

Officers borrowed capital and military emeritalnaya Booking Milyutin been reformed, organized the meeting were officers, changed the military organization of the army, established by the military district system (August 6, 1864), reorganize staff, reorganized commissariat. Voices that training for the soldiers, according to a new location, is small and not sufficient, but in the war 1877 – 1878 years. younger converted army brought up without the birch, in the spirit of humanity, brilliantly justified expectations of converters.

For their labors during the war Milutin decree of August 30. 1878 was elevated to the dignity of a count. Stranger to any desire to conceal the error of his subordinates, he was after the war did their best to judicial inquiry to shed light on the numerous abuses that had crept into the war in the Quartermaster and other parts. In 1881, shortly after the resignation of Loris-Melikov, the ministry went out and Milutin.

The remaining members of the State Council, Milutin almost continuously lived in the Crimea. Milutin – President Emeritus of the General Staff Academy and the Military Law, an honorary member of Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Artillery, Engineering and Medical-Surgical, Universities of Moscow and Kharkov, the community care for the sick and wounded soldiers, Geographical Society.

Petersburg University in 1866 awarded him the rank of Doctor of Russian history.

See "Historical Sketch of the military government in Russia for 1855 – 1880 years." (St. Petersburg, 1880); G. Dzhanshieev, "The era of great reforms"; biographical article Yakushkin in "Russian Gazette" in 1893

In 1806 he defended his thesis on the abolition of serfdom in Russia. Of Goettingen went to the Slavic countries, and then to London, where he worked in the archives. Since 1811 – professor of Russian language and literature at Tartu University.

During the War of 1812, organized at the headquarters of the Russian army marching printing press, which published not only orders and manifestos, but the poetry of Zhukovsky "Songs in the camp of Russian troops", and "the elder Kutuzov, as well as patriotic" fly "the newspaper" Russian "( in Russian Mr. German). Since 1813 – as a partisan Brother General Paisija Kaisarova. He was killed at the Battle of Hanau (there is a legend that he blew himself up with artillery train that supplies do not fall into enemy hands).

Catherine the Great did not like his son Paul Petrovich, but about the education of his grandson, which for these purposes, however, soon deprived of maternal care. Raising his empress tried to put on her high standards of modern educational requirements. She wrote "Grandma's ABC" with didactic jokes, and manuals, data educator Grand Dukes Alexander and (his brother) Constantine Count (later Duke) of NI Saltykov in imperial rescript from the March 13, 1784, spells out his thoughts, about good health and conservation thereof; regarding the continuation and reinforcement umonakloneniya for good, on the virtues of courtesy and knowledge "and rules" of the overseers on their behavior with the pupils. Guidelines are built on the principles of abstract liberalism and infused teaching whims "Emile" Rousseau. Implementation of this plan was entrusted to different individuals. Conscientious Swiss La Harpe, an admirer of republican ideas and political freedom, was in charge of intellectual formation of the Grand Duke, and read with him and Mably Demosthenes, Tacitus, Gibbon, Locke and Rousseau, he managed to earn the respect and friendship of his pupil. La Harpe helped Kraft, professor of physics, the famous Pallas, who had read botany and mathematician Masson. Russian was taught by famous sentimental writer and moralist MN Ants, and the law of God – Archpriest A. Samborski, a man more secular, devoid of deep religious feeling. Finally, Count NI Saltykov cared mainly about maintaining the health of the great princes and enjoyed the goodwill of Alexander to his death. In education, this great prince, had no strong religious and national basis, it does not develop in him a personal initiative and protects it from contact with the Russian reality. On the other hand it was too abstract for young men 10 – 14 years and glided over the surface of his mind, does not penetrate into the interior. Therefore, while such education and has put the Grand Duke a number of humane sentiments and vague idea of a liberal nature, but not given any order or other specific forms and did not give the young Alexander of funds for their implementation, therefore, – devoid of practical significance.

In the character of Alexander said the results of this education. They are largely explains his impressionability, humaneness, an attractive treatment but at the same time, and some inconsistency. Most education was interrupted in mind early marriage of Grand Duke (16 years) on 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, Grand Duchess Elizabeth Alexeyevna. From a young age, Alexander was in a rather difficult position between his father and grandmother. Often, attending the morning parades and exercises in Gatchina in ill-fitting uniform, he was among the evening of exquisite and witty company which gathered in the Hermitage. The need to keep myself quite reasonable in these two areas, accustomed to the secrecy of the Grand Duke, and then the discrepancy between what he had seen him suggestible theories and naked Russian reality, instilled in him distrust of the people and frustration. The changes that have taken place in court life and public order after the death of the Empress, could favorably influence the character of Alexander. Although at this time he performed the duties of the St. Petersburg military governor, was also a member of the Council, the Senate, Chief l.-g. Semenov regiment, and presided over a military department, but not the confidence of the Emperor Paul Petrovich.

Despite the difficult situation in which the Grand Duke was at the court of Emperor Paul, he was at that time showed humanity and gentleness in dealing with subordinates and the properties of these so fascinated everyone that even a man with a heart of stone, according to Speransky, could not resist against such treatment. Therefore, when Alexander's accession to the throne March 12, 1801 He was welcomed by most joyous public mood. Difficult political and administrative tasks awaited permission from the young ruler. Another little experienced in the affairs of governance, he preferred to keep the political views of his great grandmother, Catherine, and a manifesto of March 12, 1801announced his intention to govern the people of God entrusted to him under the laws and "the heart" late Empress. Basel peace concluded between Prussia and France forced the Empress Catherine to join with Britain in a coalition against France. With its accession to the throne of Emperor Paul coalition collapsed, but was revived again in 1799 in the same year alliance between Russia and Austria and Britain again broke down, found convergence between St. Petersburg and Berlin courtyards, began a peaceful intercourse with the First Consul (1800).

Emperor Alexander hastened to restore peace with England Convention on 5 June and concluded a peace treaty on September 26 with France and Spain, to the same time that the decree on the free passage of foreign and Russian foreign country, as it was before 1796 thus re-established peaceful relations with the powers, the Emperor the first four years of his reign of almost all its forces dedicated internal reform activities. Reform activities of Alexander was primarily directed to the destruction of the last orders of the reign of which change the social order envisaged by the great Catherine.

Two manifesto signed April 2, 1801, were restored: Charter of the Nobility, municipal statute and charter, this city, and soon again approved the law, the liberation of the priests and deacons, along with the personal nobility, from corporal punishment. Secret expedition (although institutions are still under Catherine II-d) destroyed the manifesto of April 2 and Sept. 15 was commanded establish a commission to revise the earlier criminal cases, the commission is really the plight of persons "whom the charges were inadvertently included and more to view and way of thoughts of that time, rather than to cases dishonest and a valid State inflicting harm. " Finally, the destruction of torture is allowed to import foreign books and music, as well as open private printing house, as it was prior to 1796 Conversion, however, consisted not only in the restoration of order, which existed before 1796, but to supplement it with new orders .

The reform of local institutions, which took place in Catherine, do not touch the central institutions, and yet they require adjustment. Emperor Alexander took up this difficult task. Employees of him in this work were: a shrewd and knew better than England Russia gr. VP Kochubey, intelligent, learned and capable NN Novosiltsev admirer of British orders, Vol. A. Czartoryski, a Polish sympathies, and gr. PA Stroganov an exceptional French education. Soon after his accession to the throne of the Emperor has established in place of the interim council, Tip fail, consideration is subject to all the important affairs of state and the draft regulations. Manifesto of September 8, 1802 established the importance of the Senate, charged with "acts of Ministers to consider all parts of their management and entrusted to the appropriate comparison and views add-on with state regulations and with reports directly from the seats to the Senate who reached their conclusions and report" Sovereign. In the Senate retained the value highest court, administrative value retained only the first department. In the same manifesto on Sept. 8 the central administration is divided between the 8 th, the newly established, ministries, what the ministry: Military land forces, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce, and public education. Each ministry was under the control of the Minister, to which (in the Ministries of Interior and Foreign Affairs, Justice, Finance and Public Education) is attached comrade
. All the ministers were members of the State Council and attended by the Senate. Conversion of these, however, have been implemented fairly quickly, so that the old institutions are faced with a new administrative order, not yet well defined.

Ministry of the Interior before the others (in 1803) received more complete device. In addition to more or less systematic reform of central institutions in the same period (1801 – 1805 G.) made separate orders on public relations and measures to disseminate public education. The right to own the land on the one hand and to engage in trade with the other extended to different classes of the population.

Decree of 12 December 1801 merchants, peasants and government philistinism is entitled to acquire land.On the other hand allowed the landowners in 1802 to make overseas wholesale guild with payment obligations, and, in 1812, and the peasants are allowed to trade in manufacturing on his own behalf, but only on an annual testimony taken from the district treasury to the payment of required fees. The Emperor Alexander sympathized with the thought of liberating the peasants, with this end in view was taken several important measures. Under the influence of the project of liberating the peasants Filed gr. SP Rumyantsev, was issued a law on free agriculturists (20 February 1803) Under this law, farmers can enter into transactions with landowners, freed from the earth, and not signing up in another state, continued to be called free agriculturists. It is also forbidden to publish for the sale of peasants without land, stopped the distribution of settlements of estates and the situation of peasants Lifland province approved 20 February 1804, facilitating their participation.

Near the administrative reforms and class continued revision of laws in commissions, management of which was entrusted to Count Zavadovsky June 5, 1801, and began to draw up the draft Law. This ulozhenie was, according to the sovereign, to complete a series of reforms undertaken by them and protecting the right of everyone ", but were not implemented, except for one common part (Code general). But if the administrative and social order has not yet been reduced to general principles of state law in the monuments of the legislation, but in any case, spiritualized, thanks to more and broader system of public education. 8 th September 1802 established a commission (and then the main board) schools, she developed a position on the device of educational institutions in Russia. The rules of this situation on an institution schools, divided into parishes, county, provincial or high school and universities, on the orders of the educational and economic part of the approved January 24, 1803 in St. Petersburg restored Academy of Sciences, has been issued for her new rules and the state in 1804 founded the Pedagogical Institute and in 1805 – universities in Kazan and Kharkov.

In 1805, PG Demidov donated considerable sums to the device high school in Yaroslavl, gr. Bezborodko did the same for Nezhin, the nobility of the Kharkov province petitioned the basis of the University of Kharkov, and gave this money. They are based technical institutions, such as: a commercial college in Moscow (1804), Commercial High School in Odessa and Taganrog (1804), increased the number of gymnasiums and schools. But all that peaceful reform activities would soon cease. The Emperor Alexander, was not accustomed to bitter struggle with the practical difficulties that have so often met him on the way to implement its plans and is surrounded by inexperienced, young advisers, too little acquainted with the Russian reality, will soon become indifferent to reform. Meanwhile, muffled boom of war, imminent if not Russia, then to neighboring Austria, began to attract his attention and he opened a new field of the diplomatic and military activities.

Soon after the peace of Amiens (March 25, 1802), again followed by a gap between England and France (early 1803) and renewed hostility of France to Austria. Misunderstandings arose also between Russia and France. The protection exerted by the Russian government Dantregu, who was with Kristenom in Russian service, and the arrest of the latter by the French Government, contrary to articles mystery convention on October 11 (NS). 1801 to maintain the integrity of the possessions of the Two Sicilies, the execution of the Duc d'Enghien (March 1804 PM) and the adoption of the First Consul imperial title – led him to break with Russia (August 1804). It was natural therefore, Russia's rapprochement with England and Sweden in early 1805 and the accession to the Union of Austria, the friendly relations which began under the accession of Alexander to the throne. The war opened badly: ignominious defeat of the Austrian army at Ulm pushed Russian forces sent to the aid of Austria, with Kutuzov headed – Inna retreat from Moravia. Cases in Krems, Gollabrune and Schon Grabern were merely ominous harbingers of defeat at Austerlitz (November 20, 1805), in which the head of the Russian army was the Emperor Alexander. Results of this lesion affected: the retreat of Russian troops to Radzivillov, in uncertain, then the hostility of Prussia to Russia and Austria, in the conclusion Presburg world (Dec. 26.1805) and Schonbrunn defensive and offensive alliance.

Before austerlitsekogo defeat Prussia to Russia relations remain highly uncertain. Although Alexander and failed to persuade the weak Friedrich Wilhelm to the approval of classified declaration 12 May 1804 concerning the war against France, but on June 1, she was disturbed by new conditions, the prisoners King of Prussia and France. The same vibrations noticed and after Napoleon's victories in Austria. In a personal interview imp. Alexander and the King at Potsdam, Potsdam convention was concluded on October 22. 1805 By this convention the king undertook to contribute to the restoration of disturbed Napoleon conditions Luneville peace, to take military mediation between the warring powers in the event of failure of the mediation was supposed to join the coalition. But the Treaty of Schönbrunn (15 December. 1805) and even more the Paris Convention (Feb. 1806), approved by the King of Prussia, showed how little one could hope for a sequence of Prussian policy. Nevertheless, the declaration and kontrdeklaratsii, signed July 12, 1806 in Charlottenburg, and on Stone Island, discovered a rapprochement between Prussia and Russia, rapprochement, which was enshrined Bartenshteynovskoy Convention (14 April. 1807), but in the second half of 1806 broke new war. The campaign began on Oct. 8., Was marked by terrible defeats Prussians at Jena and Auerstedt would have finished the complete subjugation of Prussia, had to help the Prussians were not Russian troops. Under the command of MF Kamensky, who was soon replaced Benningsen, these forces have had a strong resistance to Napoleon at Pultusk, then were forced to retreat after the battles at Morungene, Bergfrieden, Landsberg. Although after the bloody battle of Eylau Russian and back, but the loss of Napoleon had been so severe that he has unsuccessfully sought an opportunity to engage in peace talks with Benningsenom and adjusted his affairs only by the victory of Friedland (June 14, 1807). The Emperor Alexander did not participate in this campaign, perhaps because he was still under the impression Austerlitsskogo defeat and only on April 2. 1807 arrived in Memel to visit the King of Prussia, deprived of almost all estates. The failure of Friedland forced him to agree to peace. World wanted a whole party at the court of Emperor and army, moreover, encouraged the ambiguous behavior of Austria and Emperor complained about Britain, and finally the same world was needed, and Napoleon himself. June 25 meeting took place between the Emperor Alexander and Napoleon, who managed to charm the Emperor his intelligence and insinuating treatment, and 27 the same month entered Tilsit treatise. In this treatise, Russia acquired Bialostocka region; Czar Alexander gave Napoleon Cattaro republic and 7 islands and
Ievrskoe Principality – Louis Holland, recognized the Emperor Napoleon, Joseph Naples – King of the Two Sicilies and agrees to accept the titles of the other brothers of Napoleon, present and future titles Member Confederation of the Rhine. Emperor Alexander took over the mediation between France and England and, in turn, agreed to mediate between Napoleon rosshey and ports.

Finally, in the same world "out of respect for Russia, the Prussian king were restored to his possession. Tilsit treaty was confirmed by the Erfurt konvenschey (30 Septem. 1808), with Napoleon at the same time agreed to the accession of Moldavia and Wallachia to Russia. At the meeting at Tilsit, Napoleon, wishing to divert the Russian forces, pointing to Alexander to Finland and even earlier (in 1806) armed Turkey against Russia. The pretext for war with Sweden served discontent Gustav IV Tilsit peace and his reluctance to engage in armed neutrality, restored in mind the gap between Russia and Britain (25 oct. 1807). War has been declared the 16 th March 1808 Russian troops held under the command of gr. Buxhowden, then gr. Kamensky took Sveaborg (April 22.) Won a victory Alov, Kuortane and especially when Orovayse, then crossed in the winter of 1809 on the ice from Abo to the Åland Islands under the command of Prince. Bagration, a vase in Umeå and in Tornio in Vestrabotniyu, under the leadership of Barclay de Tolly and gr. Shuvalov. The success of Russian troops and a change of government in Sweden contributed concluded Fredrikshamn world (5 Sept. 1809) with the new king, Charles XIII. In this world, Russia has become Finland to p.Torneo the Aland islands.

The Emperor Alexander himself visited Finland, opened the Diet and have kept the faith, indigenous laws, rights and benefits, with which hitherto enjoyed every class in particular, and all residents of Finland in general, in their constitutions. " In St. Petersburg, arranged committee and was appointed State Secretary of the Finnish cases, in most of Finland executive power is given to the Governor-General, the Legislature – to the Governing Council subsequently received the name of the Finnish Senate. Less fortunate was the war with Turkey. The occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Russian troops in 1806 led to this war, but to the peace of Tilsit hostilities limited attempts Michelson take Zhurzhu, Ishmael, and some other fortresses, and the successful actions of the Russian fleet under the command of Senyavina against Turkey, injured when a severe defeat Fr. Lemnos.

Peace of Tilsit in time end the war, but it resumed after the Erfurt meeting in mind Ports refusal to cede Moldavia and Wallachia. The failure Prince. Prozorovskiy fixed soon have a brilliant victory gr. Kamensky in Batinah Region (about Ruschuka) and the defeat of the Turkish army in Slobozia, on the left bank of the Danube, under the command of Kutuzov, who was appointed in place of the deceased Count. Kamensky. Success of Russian arms forced the Sultan to peace, but peace talks dragged on too long and the Emperor was dissatisfied slow Kutuzova, has appointed a chief Admiral Chichagova to learn about the conclusion of the Bucharest World (May 16, 1812). In this world, Russia acquired Bessarabia, with fortresses Khotin, Bender, Ackermann, Kiliey, Ishmael, to the Prut River, and Serbia – internal autonomy. Next to the war in Finland and on the Danube, Russian arms had to fight in the Caucasus. After loosing control Georgia gen. Knorring, Georgia, was appointed chief superintendent of Prince. Tsivdanov. He conquered the region and Dzharobelokanskuyu Ganji, which renamed Elisavetopol, but at the siege of Baku was treacherously killed (1806).

In managing gr. Gudovich and Tormasov attached Samegrelo, Abkhazia and Imereti, and exploits Kotlyarevs'kogo (Abbas Mirza's defeat, capture and subjugation of Lenkoran Talshinskogo Khanate) facilitated the conclusion of the Gulistan Peace (October 12, 1813), whose conditions have changed since some of the acquisitions made by HL Ermolov, commander of Georgia from 1816 All these wars have ended and although quite significant territorial gains, but responded to the bad state of the national and state economy. In 1801 – 1804 years. State Revenue preparing to start about 100 million. annually, banknotes in circulation, there were up to 260 m, the external debt should not exceed 47 1 / 4 mil. silver. rub. deficit was small.

Meanwhile, in 1810, revenues decreased in two, and then four times. Bills were issued to 577 m. rubles., External debt rose to 100 m. p. and found a deficit of 66 m p. In keeping with this strongly decreased the value of the ruble. In 1801 – 1804 years. on a silver ruble had on 11 / 4 and 11 / 5, banknotes, and April 9, 1812 put a river considered. silver. p equal to 3. appropriation. Brave hand former pupil Alexander Petersburg Seminary led the state economy from such a plight. Thanks to the work Speransky (especially manifests the 2 nd February 1810, January 29. And 11 Febr. 1812), discontinued production of bills, increased salary and capitation quitrent tax, set a new progressive income tax, new excise taxes and duties. Monetary System also transformed manif. on June 20, 1810 Results transformed to some extent already affected in 1811, when revenue came to 355 1 / 2, m p. (= 89 m p. Silver.) Spending extended only to 272 m. p., Debts number of 43 m and 61 m. The entire debt of the financial crisis was caused by a number of heavy wars. But the war after the peace of Tilsit had not absorbed the whole attention of the Emperor Alexander.

Failed War 1805 – 1807 years. instilled in him distrust of its own military capabilities, he again turned his forces on the internal reform activities, especially that now have such a talented assistant, as Speransky. The draft changes, compiled Sperdnski in a liberal spirit, and to codify the ideas expressed by the Emperor, was implemented only to a small extent. Decree of August 6. 1809promulgated rules of production in the ranks of the civil service and the trials into a spider for the production of the 8 th and 9 th classes of officials without university diplomas. Manifesto of January 1, 1810 the former "permanent" council transformed the state with zakonosoveschatelnym value. "In order to state statutes, the Council was" the class, means all of the governed in the main their relationship to the law "thinking, and through him, ascended to the supreme imperial power. By this "all laws, regulations and institutions in their primitive tracings were proposed and discussed in the State Council and then, the influence of dominant power, there were intended to commit them." The State Council was divided into four departments: the Department of laws is all that is in essence was the subject of law, commission the law was intended to be in this department all the initial outlines of the law, it compiled. In the department of military affairs were "subjects" ministries military and marine. The department of civil and ecclesiastical affairs were matters of justice, administration of the spiritual and the police. Finally, the Department of State Economy belonged to "the common objects of industry, science, commerce, finance, treasury and accounts."

When the State Council were: Commission to formulate laws, the commission petitions, the State Chancellery. Together with the transformation of the State Council manifesto July 25, 1810 to the former ministries joined by two new agencies: the Ministry of Police and the General Directorate of Audit of public accounts. On the contrary, the case of the Ministry of Commerce distributed between the ministries of Interior and Finance, and the most minutes. Commerce abolished. Along with the reform of central government continues to convert and in the field of spiritual enlightenment. Ignition revenues of the church, some at the cost of the device Theological Schools (1807), brought the opportunity to increase their number. In 1809 opened Theological Academy in St. Petersburg in 1814 – in St. Ser
gius Lavra, in 1810, established the Corps of Engineers of Railway Transport, founded in 1811 Tsarskoe Selo Lyceum, and in 1814 opened the Public Library. But the second period of reform activities were disrupted by a new war. Soon after the Erfurt convention revealed discord between rosshey and France. By virtue of this convention Emperor Alexander put 30000 th unit of the union troops in Galicia during the Austrian war in 1809, but this detachment, consisting under the command of Prince. SF Golitsyn, falter, as the clear desire of Napoleon to restore or at least significantly strengthen Poland and its refusal to approve the convention on December 23. 1809, protecting Russia from such amplification, aroused strong concern on the part of the Russian government. The appearance of disagreement intensified under the influence of new circumstances. The tariff for 1811, released on December 19, 1810, filed displeasure of Napoleon. Another treaty in 1801 were restored peaceful trade relations with France, and in 1802 for 6 years extended trade agreement, signed in 1786 but already in 1804 prohibited to bring along the western boundary of all cotton fabrics, and in 1805 raised duties on some silk and wool in order to encourage local, Russian production. The same objectives that guided the government and in 1810 the new tariffs raised duties on wine, timber, cocoa, coffee and sugar; foreign paper (except for white under the branding), linen, silk, wool, and similar products are prohibited; Russian goods, laziness , hemp, tallow, flax seeds, sailing and linen flamskie, potash and tar taxed supreme holiday duties. On the contrary, permit the importation of foreign raw products and duty-free export of iron from Russian factories. The new tariff is wrecking the French trade and led to resentment of Napoleon, who demanded that the Emperor Alexander took French fare and did not take not only English but also neutral (American) ships in Russian ports. Soon after the publication of a new tariff, Duke of Oldenburg, uncle of the Emperor Alexander, was deprived of his possessions, and protest the Emperor, the circular said so March 12, 1811, remained without consequences. After these clashes, the war was inevitable. Scharnhorst already in 1810, asserted that Napoleon had prepared a plan of war against Russia.

In 1811 an alliance with France, Prussia, and then Austria. Summer 1812Napoleon moved with the Allied forces in Prussia, and on June 11 passed the Niemen between Kovno and Grodno with the 600-strong army. The Emperor Alexander has a military force three times smaller, at their head were: Barclay de Tolly and Prince. Bagration in Vilna, and Grodno provinces. But behind this relatively small standing army, the whole Russian people, not to mention the individuals and the nobility of entire provinces, all of Russia freely exhibited to 320,000 warriors and sacrificed at least hundreds of millions of rubles.

After the first collision Barclay at Vitebsk and Mogilev Bagration by French troops and Napoleon's failed attempt to enter the rear of Russian troops and take Smolensk, Barclay became a retreat for Dorogobuzhsky road. Rajewski, and then Dokhturov (with Konovnitsyn and Neverovsky) were repulsed two attacks by Napoleon at Smolensk, but after the second attack Dokhturov had to leave Smolensk and join the retreating army. Despite the retreat, the Emperor Alexander had been no attempt to engage Napoleon's peace talks, but was forced to change the unpopular among the troops Barclay – Kutuzov. The latter arrived at headquarters, in Tsarevo Zaimysche, August 17, and 26 gave the battle of Borodino. The outcome of the battle remained undecided, but Russian troops continued to retreat to Moscow, whose population was greatly excited against the French, among other things handbills gr. Rostopchin. War Council at Fili evening of 1 September decided to leave Moscow, which was occupied by Napoleon on September 8, but soon (October 7) abandoned by the lack of Stores, massive fires, and the decline of military discipline. Meanwhile Kutuzov (probably on the advice of Toll) turned to the Ryazan road on which no derogation, the Kaluga, and gave battle with Napoleon Tarutino and Maloyaroslavets. Cold, hunger, unrest in the army, the rapid retreat of successful guerrilla (Davydova, Figner Seslavin, Samusya) Miloradovich victory at Vyazma, Ataman Platov on Vopi, Kutuzov in Red – led the French army completely disorganized, and after a calamitous ferry across the Berezina, Napoleon was forced, not reaching Wilna, to flee to Paris.

December 25, 1812 was issued a manifesto on the final expulsion of the French from Russia. The Patriotic War was over, she made a strong change in the psychic life of the Emperor Alexander. In those trying times of disaster and emotional troubles, he began to seek support in the religious sense and in this regard finds support in the state secretary Shishkov, which now occupies the place deserted after the removal of Speransky before the war began. Successful outcome of this war even more developed in the Emperor faith in mysterious ways of Divine Providence and a belief that the share of the Russian Tsar had the difficult political problem: to make peace in Europe on the basis of justice, the sources of which the religious-minded soul of the Emperor Alexander was found in evangelical doctrine .

Kutuzov, Shishkov, partly oz. Rumyantsev were against continuing the war abroad. But the Emperor Alexander, supported by Stein, firmly resolved to continue fighting. January 1, 1813 Russian troops crossed the border in the Empire found themselves in Prussia. Already 18 December 1812, Mr. York, chief of the Prussian detachment, sent to the aid of French troops, had entered into an agreement with Dibich the Neutrality of the German troops, though he did not have permission from the Prussian government. Kalisz tract (15 – 16 February 1813) entered into a defensive-offensive alliance with Prussia, confirmed treatise Teplitsky (August 1813). Meanwhile, Russian troops under the command of Wittgenstein, together with the Prussian defeat at the Battle of Lutzen and Bautzen (20 April and 9 May). After the armistice and the so-called Prague meeting, which resulted in Austria was commencing an alliance against Napoleon on the Reichenbach Convention (15 June 1813), hostilities resumed. After the successful battle for Napoleon at Dresden, and failed at Kulm, Brienne, Laon, Arsis-sur-Aube and Fer Champenoise, March 18, 1814 surrendered to Paris, signed Treaty of Paris (18 May), and cast out Napoleon.

Shortly thereafter, May 25, 1815, opened the Congress of Vienna mainly to discuss issues of Poland, Saxony and Greek. The Emperor Alexander during the whole campaign was with the army, and insisted on the occupation of Paris by Allied troops.As the main act of the Congress of Vienna (June 28, 1815) Russia acquired a part of the Duchy of Warsaw, except the grand duchy of Poznan, of Prussia and parts of Austria ceded, and in the Polish possessions attached to Russia, was introduced by Alexander the constitution drawn up in a liberal spirit. Peace negotiations at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by Napoleon's attempt to regain the French throne. Russian troops again moved from Poland to the shores of the Rhine, and the Emperor Alexander went from Vienna to Heidelberg. But Napoleon's Hundred Days rule ended with his defeat at Waterloo and the restoration of the legitimate dynasty in the face of King Louis XVIII of heavy duty second Paris peace (November 8, 1815). Wishing to reestablish peaceful international relations between the Christian sovereigns of Europe on the basis of brotherly love and the Gospel commandments, Emperor Alexander was an act of the Holy Alliance, signed by himself, the King of Prussia and the Austrian emperor. International relations were maintained by the congresses at Aachen (1818), where it was decided to withdraw its troops from the allies of France, in Troppau (1820) about the unrest in Spain, Laybahe (1821) referring to disturbances in the Savoy and the Neapolitan Revolution and, fina
lly, Verona (1,822) – for restraint perturbations in Spain and the discussion of the Eastern question.

As a direct result of heavy war 1812 – 1814 years. was the deteriorating state economy. By the 1 st January 1814 were listed in the parish of 587 1 / 2 million. rub.; domestic debt reached 700 million. rub., Dutch duty extends to 101 1 / 2 million. florins (= 54 mill..), and a silver ruble in 1815, went to 4 p.. 15 K appropriation. How long have these effects, reveals the state of Russian finances ten years later. In 1825, government revenue was only 529 1 / 2 million. rub., banknotes issued in 595 1 / 2 million. rub. that together with the Dutch and some other debts amounted to 350 1 / 2 million. rub. Ser. It is true that in regard to commerce noticed a significant successes.

In 1814 the imports did not exceed 113 1 / 2 million. rub. and export – 196 million. appropriation.; in 1825 imports reached 185 1 / 2 million. rub., export stretched an amount of 236 1 / 2 mil. rub. But the war 1812 – 1814, there were and other implications. Restoration of free political and trade relations between the European powers and led to the publication of several of the new tariffs. In the tariff in 1816 admitted there were some changes in comparison with the rate in 1810, the tariff in 1819 greatly reduced the prohibitive duties on certain foreign goods, but in orders in 1820 and 1821. and the new tariff in 1822 marked a return to the old security system.

With the fall of Napoleon collapsed them build relations of political forces in Europe. The new definition of their relationship took over the Emperor Alexander. This problem and distract attention from domestic sovereign, transformative work of previous years, moreover, that the throne at that time was already past fans of English constitutionalism, and the brilliant theorist and supporter of French institutions, Speransky, over time, replaced the austere formalist, chairman of the military Department of the State Council and superior military settlements, poorly endowed by nature Count Arakcheev. However, in the government orders last decade of the reign of Emperor Alexander sometimes still see the traces of earlier transformative ideas. 28 th May 1816 approved a draft Estland nobility of the final emancipation of the peasants. Courland nobility followed the example of Estland nobles, at the invitation of the Government, which approved and a project on the peasants of Courland August 25, 1817 and Livonian peasants on 26 March 1819 together with the estates orders made several changes in the central and regional administration.

Decree of 4 September 1819 the Ministry of Police attached to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, from which the Department of Manufactures and Internal Trade transferred to the Ministry of Finance. In May 1824 the case of St. Synod, separated from the Ministry of Education, where they were transferred to the manifesto on Oct. 24, 1817, and where things were left alone foreign faiths. Even earlier, the manifesto of May 7, 1817Board is established lending statutes, both for audit and verification of all transactions, and for the consideration and conclusion of all the assumptions on the credit side. Around the same time (manif. April 2, 1817) applies to the replacement of paying off a government sale of wine, the management of the drinking charges are concentrated in government office. Concerning the regional administration also made the attempt soon after the distribution of the Great Russian provinces on the General Government. Governmental efforts also continued to affect the care of public education. At the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute in 1819, arranged public courses than the foundation of St. Petersburg University.

In 1820, the reorganized school of engineering and artillery founded in Odessa in 1816 established the Richelieu Lyceum. They began to spread school mutual learning by the method of Bel and Lancaster. In 1813 he founded the Bible Society, which the emperor issued shortly substantial financial assistance. In 1814, opened the Imperial Public Library in St. Petersburg. Private individuals have followed the example of the government. Gr. Rumyantsev constantly sacrificed money to print sources (eg the publication of the Russian chronicles – 25000 p.) And research scientists. At the same time strongly developed journalistic and literary activities.

Already in 1803 the Ministry of Public Education to issue "a periodical essay about the successes of public education, and the Ministry of Internal Affairs – St. Petersburg Journal" (since 1804). But these official publications not have such values, which were: "Messenger of Europe (since 1802) and M. Kachenovsky N. Karamzin," Son of the Fatherland "by N. Grech (since 1813)," Notes of the Fatherland "P . Svinin (since 1818), "Siberian Journal" Mr. Spassky (1818 – 1825), "Northern Archive Bulgarin F. (1822 – 1828), later connected with the" Son of Fatherland. Academic nature of different editions of the Moscow Society for History and Antiquities, founded in 1804 ("Proceedings" and "Chronicle" and "Russian Sights" – from 1815). At the same time acted V. Zhukovsky, AI Dmitriev and VI Krylov, V. Ozerov, A. Griboedov could hear sad sounds Batyushkovskoy lyre were heard a mighty voice of Pushkin and began to publish poems Baratynsky. Meanwhile, Karamzin published his "History of the Russian State", and the development of more specific issues involved in historical science Schlozer, N. Bantysh-Kamensky, K. Kalaidovich, A. Vostokov, Eugene Bolkhovitinov (Metropolitan of Kiev), M. Kachenovsky, G. Evers. Unfortunately, this intellectual movement was subjected to repressive measures, often under the influence of the disturbances that took place abroad, they recall a small extent and in the Russian troops, in part because more and more religiously conservative direction, which took the mindset of the Emperor, Aug. 1 1822 banned all secret societies were, in 1823, are not allowed to send young people into some of the Germanic universities.

In May 1824 management of the Ministry of Public Education requested a well-known adherent of ancient Russian literary tradition Admiral Shishkov, with the same time ceased to assemble Bible Society and significantly constrained by censorship. The last years of his life the Emperor Alexander spent much of the constant traveling to the remotest corners of Russia, or almost in complete seclusion in Tsarskoe Selo. At this time the main object of his concerns was the issue of Greek. The revolt of the Greeks against the Turks, due in 1821, Alexander Ypsilanti, which consisted in the Russian service, and disturbances in the sea and the islands of the Archipelago, brought protests from the Emperor Alexander. But the Sultan could not believe the sincerity of such a protest, and the Turks in Istanbul killed many Christians. Then the Russian ambassador, a bar. Stroganov, left Constantinople. " The war was inevitable, but, delayed by European diplomats, broke out just after the death of the Emperor.

Emperor Alexander died Nov. 19, 1825 in Taganrog, where accompanied by his wife, Empress Elizabeth Alekseyevna for her to Improve Health. With regard to the Emperor Alexander to the Greek question quite clearly affected by peculiarities of this third phase of development, he created what was going through a political system in the last decade of his reign,.The system was initially grown on the soil of abstract liberalism, the latter was replaced by political altruism, which in turn transformed into religious conservatism.

Major works on the history of Alexander the 1 st: M. Bogdanovich, "The History of the Emperor Alexander the 1 st. V. VI (St. Petersburg, 1869 – 1871), S. Soloviev, "The Emperor Alexander the First. Politics – Diplomacy" (St. Petersburg, 1877), A. Nadler, "The Emperor Alexander the First and the idea of St. Union" (Riga, IV T., 1885 – 1888 years); N. Putyata "Review of the life and rei
gn of Emperor. Alexander the 1 st" (in the Historical Collection. 1872, ј1 p. 426 – 494); Schilder, "Russia in its relations to Europe in the reign of Emperor Alexander 1, 1806 – 1815." (In Rus. Star. "1888); N. Varadinov," History. Min. Internal Affairs "(Part I – III, St. Petersburg. 1862), A. Semenov," Study of historical information about Russian trade "(St. Petersburg, 1859, Part II, p. 113 – 226), M. Semevskii," peasant question "(2 v., St. Petersburg. 1888); I. Dityatin," Design and management of cities in Russia "(2 v., 1875 – 1877); A. Pypin," Social Movement under Alexander the 1-m "(St Petersburg, 1871).

Frankfurt (Oder) and University of Göttingen thoroughly studied law, politics and history. Devoted to science, he, however, with rapt attention watching the movement in the spheres of political, social and literary.

In 1789 he, along with their teacher, the famous Campo, traveled to Paris, to attend the funeral of French despotism. " Later, he responded to a question posed then the history of mutual relations between the state and person, in the book "Ideen zu einern Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen".

He is the champion here for complete individual freedom and restricts the role of government concern about external security. This book is so at odds with traditional notions that censorship did not permit its publication, and it appeared in print only in 1851

Even more than the political issues that interest him new directions in literature, and philosophy. Already in 1790 in Weimar he started strong, never broke with Schiller, and later established friendly relations between him and the Goethe. And so, with another Humboldt was in active correspondence, which was published under the title: "Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und W. v. H." (Stuttgart, 1876) and "Goethes Briefwechsel mit den Gebruedern von H., 1795 – 1832" (Lpts., 1876).

Early in the acquisition of reputation universally educated person made him a prominent member of the literary salons of the time. It appears that in Berlin, in a circle of Henriette Herz, Rachel Levin and others, in Erfurt and Weimar, then in Jena (1794 – 97), in constant contact with the circle of Schiller.

Since then, he married (1791) at Dahereden Carolina, his house became one of the most brilliant salons, where all that was in Europe, smart, talented and famous. The wife of Humboldt was one of the most enlightened and most intelligent women of her time and provided the greatest assistance to her husband even in his scholarly work. And in philosophical circles Humboldt had extensive contacts with especially close he was to the Kantian Jacobi.

Store your observations and experiences Humboldt found its not only from books and living communion with luminaries of the spiritual culture, but also from travel. He was often in France, Switzerland and Spain, and quite long lived in Rome. Very remarkable his work on various branches of classical philology, and especially a completely new way while still comparative linguistics.

Especially important are his studies on the language of the Spanish Basque country ("Prufung der Untersuchungen uber dieUrbewohner Hispaniens, vermittelst der baskischen Sprache", etc.) and language of the inhabitants of Java ("Ueber die Kawisprache auf der Insel Java"). In these papers, Humboldt is not limited to the dry study of the material: he always tried to philosophical generalizations.

From that point of view is especially remarkable article that serves as an introduction to the study of the Javanese ("Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschilchen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts"). When, after the defeat of Jena, in Prussia felt the need for fresh forces and energetic leader for the field of both domestic and foreign policy, between the new people moved and Humboldt, from 1808 to 1819, he held important posts.

For the first time more or less prominent position in the service Humboldt received another in 1802, being appointed a resident at the papal court. Reluctantly, he left this post interesting for him to take the Ministry gr. Don position of director of the Department of Education and creeds. Under his influence and leadership is based Berlin University (1810), and he called to his aid such large force, as Fichte, Schleiermacher Niebuhr, Fr. Wolf and others

Without waiting for the opening of the University of Humboldt, who had a lot of envy in the capital, suddenly left Berlin and went further in his diplomatic career, having ambassadorial post in Vienna, where he began to work towards an alliance between Austria and Prussia against France. He is a representative of Prussia at the Prague Congress (1813), failure of which he was happy as a zealous patriot, admits of no deals with Napoleon.

In 1814He, along with Hardenberg, his personal enemy, represented Prussia in Paris, and then the same role with the same companion sang at the Vienna Congress, and was an ardent supporter of the unification of Germany. In 1817, he was trying to become ambassador in Paris, the court, but his nomination was withdrawn at the insistence of Louis XVIII century. As Humboldt was too bright representative of the party hostile to France.

In domestic policy, he firmly held to the principles of a well-known converter of Prussia, Stein's why a clever and influential Hardenberg tried to keep away from Berlin's Humboldt and not give him any significant position of public administration.

In 1819, Humboldt was made champion constitutional in Prussia, and he was able to be appointed to carry out this reform, Minister of Interior. But soon, thanks to Carlsbad regulations, policies Prussia has undoubtedly reactionary trend, against which Humboldt is useless to protest, Hardenberg armed against Humboldt, and he, having been Minister for 4 months and nothing having to do has been dismissed. Then again, in 1823, his friends tried to hold him to the post of first minister, but at Humboldt in the ruling circles were few supporters of a man is definitely liberal.

He refused the proposed pensions, forever joined practical politics until his death (1835) has lived without a break in his hereditary castle Tegel (near Berlin), in-depth in their favorite activities. His collected works was published in Berlin in 1841 – 52 years.

For his performance as a man, a very important addition to the said correspondence with Schiller and Goethe, published his letters to Charlotte Dide ("W. v. Hs Briefe an eine Freundin") and Kerner ("Briefe an Chr. Gottfr. Korner" ).

The main work of the identity and significance of Humboldt – book Haym (Knauth, "W. at. N." Berl., 1856). Public and full biorpafiya Humboldt attached to the book by Elisa Meyer (Elisa Maier, "W. v. H. Lichtstrahlen ans seinen Briefen")

Cit.: Der Mensch und die Technik. Beitrag zu einer Philosophic des Lebens, Munch., 1931; Reden und Aufsatze, [3 Aufl.l, Munch., [1951]; Urfragen. Fragmente aus dem Nachlass, Munch., 1965, in Russian. per .- Philosophy future, Ivanovo 1922; Prussianism and socialism, P., 1922; pessimism it?, M., 1922. Lit.: V. Lazarev, H., Oswald Spengler and his views on art, M., 1922, Oswald Spengler and the decline in Europe, M., 1922, Davydov, Yu H., Art and the elite, M., 1966, . 251 – 77; Averintsev S., "Morphology of culture" O. Spengler, "Problems of Literature", 1968, № 1, Asmus, VF, Marx and bourgeois historicism, in his book.: Fav. Sc. Proceedings, v. 2, M., 1,971; Hughes HS, Oswald Spengler. A critical estimate, NY, [1962]; Spengler-Studien. Festfabe fur M. Schroter zum 85. Geburtstag, rsg. v. AM Koktanek, Munch., 1965.